PAKISTAN. HISTORY

Pakistan - a young state, which arose in 1947, but the Muslims living in its territory more than a thousand years. They first appeared in South Asia as conquerors in the 8th century. and remained an influential political force until the 19th century.
Early Muslim state in India. 710-716 in troops under the command of a prominent Umayyad commander Muhammad bin Qasim conquered Sindh and southern Punjab. Those who did not accept Islam, the new Arab government was obliged to pay a special poll tax on infidels - Gees, but they had been left to the freedom of worship and in the cultural life. From the Indians did not require compulsory military service, but if they came to it, it exempted from the jizya and got laid salaries and remuneration. Between 1000-1026 by Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni made ​​17 trips to India, penetrating through the valley of the Indus to the Gangetic Plain. His empire stretched from Samarkand to Lahore and Isfahan, but its western areas have been lost heirs to the throne during the 11th century. Gaznevids Punjab, which included the North West Frontier Province and Sindh, can be considered the prototype of Pakistan. Numerous Muslim communities settled in the basin of the Indus, is no longer seen as the land of the conquered territory - it has become their home. Ghaznavid domination was transient, and the Indus Valley in 1185 became part of the power Ghurids. It happened under Sultan Muiz-ud-Din Muhammad, who managed to extend Muslim rule on the entire north-western India, as well as Bengal and Bihar. Successors, who was killed in 1206 in Punjab Muiz-ud-din Muhammad managed to keep control over the conquered lands in India. Since his death in 1206 until the reign of Babur, who founded in 1526 the Mughal dynasty, known as the time of the Delhi Sultanate. In it for more than 300 years was replaced by 40 sultans who belonged to the five Muslim dynasties: the court of slaves (1206-1290), Hildzhi (1290-1320), Tughluk (1320-1414), Sayyid (1414-1451) and Lodi (1451 - 1526). Administrative posts in the Delhi Power held primarily Muslims, but Hindus also involved in public service. In relation to the latter showed religious tolerance, and to decide civil cases, they had their own community courts (panchayats). Islam in this era of increased his influence in India. Appeal to him in the whole place without violence, and engaged in preaching the tenets of Muslim mystics of the Sufi orders, partly specially trained and selected to carry the light of the new faith in the different areas of the subcontinent. Contact Hindus and Muslims led to the establishment of the Urdu language, which originated on the basis of one of the dialects of northern India, enriched by the Persian language. Hindi was formed on the basis of the same dialect, but was influenced by Sanskrit. In the 17th and 18th centuries. has developed a modern literary standard Urdu, which used the Perso-Arabic script and took the creative traditions of Persian and Arabic writers and ideas of Islam, Urdu has become a powerful engine of Muslim culture in South Asia.
Mughal Empire. This state is known for its achievements in the field of culture, education and the arts. Founded by Babur in 1526, it has been consolidated by his grandson Akbar (c. 1556-1605). Akbar pursued a policy of reconciliation with the Indians, and administrative efficiency is an important feature of the reign of this emperor. In 1579, the poll tax was abolished - jizya. Hindu temples have been taken under the protection of the state. In 1580, Akbar announced the creation of a new religion - Din-Illah (God's religion), which was based on a clear monotheism, rejection of idolatry and polytheism. The aim was to ensure loyalty and Hindus, and Muslims, especially officials in the state apparatus. When it was introduced by the Minister of Finance of Indian Todaro Mala, is the system of land taxation, which supports the British colonial authorities in the development of its policy in the late 18th century. Akbar's successor, Emperor Jahangir (c. 1605-1627) is also guided by the creation of a "secular" state. Shah Jahan (c. 1628-1658) transformed the Muslim empire in power, but is very tolerant of Hindus. Jealous faith Aurangzeb (c. 1658-1707) was the successor of his father Shah Jahan after the victory in the struggle for the throne of the three brothers. Already in the first years of Aurangzeb issued several decrees restore the many Islamic customs. With age, the religious fanaticism of the governor increased. Hindu temples, built without imperial permission, were destroyed, and the building of new not allowed. In April 1679 the Indians were again levied jizya. Harassment caused strong resentment among the Hindus and some excitement. Among them were a riot Satnam sect in g.Narnaule (south-west of Delhi) in 1672, a revolt Sikh Guru Tegh Bahadur in 1675, the Rajput rebellion in 1679, the civil war in 1680-1707 with the Marathas. War waged by Aurangzeb, the destruction caused neighborly political and cultural ties that have arisen between Muslims and Hindus at Akbar. Aurangzeb's successors lacked his abilities and energy. In 18. communities of Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs joined the internecine fighting for the lead, but could not resist the British, who have filled the political vacuum left by the decline of Mughal power. British India and the demand for the creation of Pakistan. In the 18th and 19th centuries. England has extended its control over the whole of India, including areas that later became part of Pakistan. Bengal was conquered in 1757, Sindh in 1843 and Punjab in 1849. In 1857, anti-British Sepoy Mutiny broke out, insisted on the transfer of power to Emperor Bahadur Shah II. The revolt was suppressed, and the Mughal dynasty ceased to exist. After 1857 the undisputed leader of the Muslim community in India was Syed Ahmad Shah (1817-1898), who insisted on peaceful relations with Britain and the adoption of the Western system of education. In 1875, Ahmad Shah founded in Aligarh Muslim University. In 1883 he managed to convince the British colonial authorities to organize separate electoral constituencies for the Hindus and the Muslims. In 1887, Syed Ahmad Shah insisted that the followers of Islam to stand apart from the Congress Party, which arose in 1885. Partition of Bengal in 1905 prompted the followers of Ahmad Shah to demand a separate quota for Muslims in the solution in the future constitutional issues. Rejecting the installation of his late political leader, his followers formed in December 1906 in Dhaka, the All India Muslim League, and then began the struggle for the establishment of Pakistan. Reform Minto - Morley in 1909 included a special representation of Muslims and other minorities in elected bodies. Later this principle at the insistence of Muslims has been recorded in the British government plans, as expressed in the reforms Montagu - Chelmsford (1919) and the Government of India Act (1935). In the 1920s, Hindus and Muslims were united front under the ideological leadership of Mahatma Gandhi, who proclaimed a campaign of civil disobedience in 1921 in protest against the hostile position of the UK in relation to the Turkish Caliphate. In the 1920s and 1930s increased the political authority of Muhammad Ali Jinnah (1876-1948) and the poet-philosopher Muhammad Iqbal (1877-1938), who prepared the Islamic community to accept the idea of the partition of India. Addressing the participants of the session of the Muslim League in Allahabad December 29, 1930, Iqbal spoke of the existence of a separate Islamic state in the subcontinent, but did not affect the future of Bengal. In Lahore, March 23, 1940 the Muslim League led by Jinnah, announced its goal the establishment of Pakistan. The very name was a neologism proposed by Chaudhuri Rahmat Ali - Muslim intellectual, then living in Cambridge (UK). Lahore Resolution 1940 declared: "habitats, where Muslims are a numerical majority, as is the case in the north-western and eastern zones of India, should be combined for the constitution of independent states in which the composition of their political subdivisions should have autonomy and sovereignty." In 1946 he directed the UK a special government mission has developed a plan to preserve the integrity of India, for regional autonomy for the Muslim population. Proposed to be divided into two geographical areas dominated by Muslims, one of which was to cover the north-western Balochistan, North West Frontier Province, Punjab and Sindh, the other - the north-eastern Assam and Bengal. The rest of India was considered as a single entity with a Hindu majority. It was recommended to the central government to provide only the minimum rights. However, the plan adopted by the League, was rejected by the Congress, and then partition of British India was inevitable. August 14, 1947 on the world map, two new independent states - India and Pakistan. Pakistan during independence secession of Bangladesh: 1947-1971. After independence, Pakistan had difficulties establishing stable political institutions. From 1947 to 1958, the country had a parliamentary system, in accordance with the Act of the Government of India (1935) and the Declaration of Independence (1947), but in the absence of direct elections to the supreme legislative authority. In 1958, the military regime was established under General (later Field Marshal) Ayub Khan, who in 1962 was elected by the constitutional President of Pakistan. In 1969 the country was under martial law, and the coming to power of General Yahya Khan, who retired in 1971. Partition of British India in 1947 gave rise to violent clashes between Hindus and Muslims, and huge flows of refugees: some 6.5 million Muslims moved from India to Pakistan and about 4.7 million Hindus and Sikhs moved in the opposite direction. It is possible that up to 500 thousand people died because of religious strife and the subsequent migrations. Obstacle to the normalization of the situation in the subcontinent was the Kashmir conflict. Before 1947, British India had 584 principalities, to whom the question was: Does the Muslim Pakistan or Hindu in India. In October 1947 the Maharaja of Kashmir, a Hindu by religion, decided in favor of India. Begun in 1947, clashes between Indian and Pakistani armed forces took place before the end of 1948, when with the help of the UN, was established cease-fire line. Proposals for a referendum among the people of Kashmir on the future of the principality were not supported by India, and it is still divided. In 1965, Pakistani troops resumed fighting in Kashmir, which was stopped due to the mediation efforts of the Soviet Union. Indian Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri and Pakistani President Ayub Khan met in Tashkent in January 1966 and agreed to withdraw its troops to cease fire line. After lengthy debate, the Constituent Assembly in 1949, guided by the judgment of Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan, has approved a resolution which stated that "Muslims should follow in their personal and social life teachings and requirements of Islam as set out in the Holy Quran and Sunnah." Adopted in March 1956 constitution declared the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, and recorded that the president must be a Muslim. This article is continued in the constitution of 1962, which operated under Ayub Khan. In this connection was established, the Advisory Council for the Islamic ideology, but also open the Institute for the Study of Islam. The Council was called to advise Muslims to organize their lives according to religious principles, and the Institute has interpreted these principles in the context of current realities. The debate over electoral curiae had great importance in view of the fact that approx. 20% of the population of East Pakistan were Hindus. In 1950-1952 were published election laws in the provincial legislatures. It was decided that if there is a clear Muslim majority advisable to allocate special electoral groups: Christians and the "common" in some areas of western Pakistan, and Christians, Buddhists, scheduled castes ("untouchables") and "common" in East Pakistan. Each group sent its representatives to the legislature on its own electoral lists. As a result of the elections in the Eastern Province in March 1954 of 309 deputies found 72 non-Muslim. When Ayub Khan (1958-1969) carried out indirect parliamentary elections through local authorities (the so-called system of "the foundations of democracy"). At the grassroots level, a separate vote was missing, that almost led to the bodies that almost did not get the candidates of non-Muslim communities. A year independence of West Pakistan included four provinces and 10 principalities. Bengalis insisted that East Pakistan has greater rights to autonomy than the administrative and territorial units of West Pakistan and because of the superiority of the total population, should be given priority in public affairs. To meet such demands, in West Pakistan were merged into one province of the 14 were part of his administrative units. This event took place in October 1955, and then it was agreed to equal representation of people in both parts of the country in the national parliament. East Pakistan had good reason to express their discontent. Although the province has focused for more than half the country's population, state appropriations were directed primarily in West Pakistan, which account for the bulk and the funds received in assistance from abroad. Disproportionately little vostochnopakistantsev there were in the government - 15% of its composition, as well as in the armed forces of the country - 17%. The central government is clearly patronized industrialists from West Pakistan on exchange with currency, in issuing import licenses, loans and grants, the granting of permits for construction of new branches of industry. Industrial development after 1953 was done largely with economic and military support from the U.S., which is focused on the protection of West Pakistan against a possible Soviet threat. In February 1966 the leader of "Awami League" Sheikh Mujibur Rahman announced his program of 6 points. It included: 1) the responsibility of the federal government to parliament, formed on the basis of free and fair elections, 2) limiting functions of the center of defense and foreign affairs, and 3) the introduction of separate currencies (or stand-alone financial statements) for each of the two provinces in the control of interprovincial movement of capital, and 4) the transfer of all types of tax collection from the center in the province, which contains contributions on their federal government, 5) providing both parts of the country the possibility to independently conclude foreign trade contracts and have therefore their own foreign currency accounts, and 6) the establishment in their provinces irregular forces. In support of these six points in the eastern province of agitation was launched, and Mujibur along with 34 associates in 1968, was arrested and charged with the development plan for the organization of the separatist rebellion by India. In early 1969 unfolded nationwide campaign of protest against the regime of President Ayub Khan. In February, the charges against Mujibur and his companions were taken. Ayub Khan convened a round table meeting with the opposition leaders, which Mujibur proposed a new constitution based on these six points. Filed March 25 resignation of Ayub Khan was replaced by General Yahya Khan, who introduced a state of emergency. Yahya Khan in West Pakistan restored traditional four provinces and appointed on December 7, the first-ever direct general elections to the national parliament. It deputies from East Pakistan was in fact guaranteed by the adoption of the majority principle "one voter - one vote". "Awami League" Mujibur won 160 of 162 seats, destined for the eastern provinces. Equally convincing win was due to a long campaign in favor of the six points, and strongly criticized the central government for its weak support to victims of the devastating hurricane that swept over the territory of East Pakistan, November 7, 1970. Party people of Pakistan (PIP), which was headed by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, won 81 of 138 seats from West Pakistan. Mujibur declared that the new constitution should be based on the six points of his program. In response, Bhutto informed the February 17, 1971, that the DPU will boycott the National Assembly, if not given an opportunity to discuss constitutional reform. As a consequence, Yahya Khan postponed the scheduled March 3 opening of the parliamentary session. "Awami League" stated that this is evidence of collusion between the president and the leader of the PPN. On March 2, Mujibur and a general strike in East Pakistan, and people took to the streets of Dhaka and other cities of the province. Sheikh urged to refrain from paying taxes until the power will not go to the representatives of the people. Yahya Khan expressed his desire to convene a new round table for negotiations, but rejected the offer of Mujibur. March 15 in East Pakistan was created a parallel government, "Awami League". In alliance with Mujibur entered vostochnobengalskie military units. March 16 Yahya Khan held a meeting in Dhaka on constitutional issues with Bhutto and Mujibur, but failed in an attempt to reach a compromise. On the night of March 26 25 Pa Yahya Khan ordered the army to launch a military action in East Pakistan banned "Awami League" and arrested Mujibur. Between the powers of the central government and rebel troops "Mukti Bahini", to fight for the creation of East Pakistan in place of an independent state of Bangladesh, full-scale war broke out. Millions of refugees streamed into India. By the summer of 1971 the Pakistani army managed to establish control over the territory of East Pakistan. But India supported the armed insurgents, and in November took a direct part in hostilities. The third Indo-Pakistani war intensified international relations since the Soviet Union supported the position of India and the U.S. and China - Pakistan. December 16, 1971 Indian troops came to Dhaka, and the Pakistani side were forced to capitulate. Bangladesh was declared an independent state, and Mujibur Rahman became its president.
Pakistan after 1971. Yahya Khan resigned on December 20, 1971. Pakistani President Zulfikar Ali Bhutto became. One of his first moves was an agreement with Prime Minister Indira Gandhi in Simla that the Indian Army will leave Pakistan. Recovered as trade and transport links between the two countries. Pakistan's relations with the U.S. have improved, in addition, he began to assist Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Libya and Iran. Bhutto abolished martial law, and in April 1973 approved the draft of a new constitution, restores parliamentary system of government. Expanded the powers of provinces. Were revived electoral constituencies for religious minorities, while maintaining the primacy of official Islam. Adhering to the idea of "Islamic socialism", Bhutto implemented the nationalization of all private banks, educational institutions, insurance companies and enterprises of heavy industry. Agrarian reform has led to the transfer of a significant proportion of landless tenants cultivated areas. Wage employment in industry, military and government officials were increased. Large funds were used to improve living conditions in rural areas. All these activities are carried out against the background of what happened four times the increase in prices for imported oil, accompanied by a doubling in 1972-1976 in consumer prices in the domestic market, which is clearly reduced Bhutto's popularity in urban areas. Bhutto hardly interacted with led Wali Khan of the Awami National Party (ANP) and the party of "Jamiat-Ulama-i Islam," which in 1972 formed Cabinet of Ministers, respectively, in the North-3apadnoy Frontier Province and Baluchistan. In February 1973, Bhutto sent these governments down, banned ANP and arrested its leaders. In March 1977, elections to the Parliament and the provincial legislatures. The opposition refused to accept the official results of the voting and organized protest movement, which killed more than 270 people. July 5, 1977 the army ousted Bhutto, and the country was set to martial law. General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq was appointed Chief Military Administrator, and in 1978 became President of Pakistan. Bhutto was accused of planning the murder of political enemies and put on trial, the solution of which in 1979 he was executed by hanging. Zia followed the line of Islamization and tends to bring the criminal law into conformity with the norms of traditional Islamic law. Were restored some legal procedures prescribed by Islam, in the field of taxation and banking. In 1979, Zia took part in the Summit of the Non-Aligned Movement, held in Havana. But the relationship between Pakistan and the U.S. were friendly, they became closer after the Soviet military intervention in the civil war in Afghanistan. Zia started the gradual creation of new political structures. In December 1981, announced the establishment of the Federal Advisory Council. On non-party basis the fall of 1983, the elections to the local authorities. They boycotted the opposition forces, and in Sindh there were serious riots. In December 1984, Zia held a referendum which approved the strategy of Islamization and secured Zia as president for five years. In February 1985, elections were held, also on a non-party basis, to the Parliament and the legislatures of the provinces, and then Zia decided to form a civilian government. The Prime Minister was appointed Muhammad Khan JUNEJO, leader of the Pakistan Muslim League (fraction Pagar), was the most numerous group of deputies in the National Assembly. In December 1985, Zia lifting of martial law and restored the constitution was amended in 1973, which increased the power of the president, giving him the power to dissolve the government and the legislative bodies of the country and provinces. Law on Political Parties, adopted a few months later, allowed them to operate legally subject to official regulations. Opposition groups have stepped up attacks on the regime of Zia, requiring regular elections at the appointed time and insisting on full restoration of constitutional norms. The most influential leader of this segment of society has led the PPN Benazir Bhutto, daughter of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto. In May 1988, Zia made ​​major foreign policy success, when the Soviet Union began withdrawing troops in Afghanistan. Although Muslim rebels fought with American weapons, Pakistan has provided them in their territory the necessary bases. Security northeastern borders with Pakistan significantly strengthened completed in February 1989 release of the Soviet army out of Afghanistan, and the weakening position of left there. In late May, Zia sacked the government JUNEJO and dissolved the National Assembly over the question of control over the armed forces. At the November 1989 elections called. Zia was at the helm when the August 17, 1988 was the victim of a mysterious plane crash. Along with him were killed, several prominent generals. Assumed the duties of President of the Senate President Ghulam Ishaq Khan, the face of civilian clothes, announced the upcoming November elections. In October, the Supreme Court ruled that candidates can run for the political parties. Won the election PPN, which won a relative majority in parliament, and its leader, Benazir Bhutto became Prime Minister on 1 December 1988. The new cabinet has achieved some success in the implementation of social and political reform, but suddenly in August 1990, Ishaq Khan sent Bhutto to resign. The Prime Minister was appointed Ghulam Mustafa Jatoi, a former ally of Bhutto. In the parliamentary elections in October 1990, led by Bhutto PPN sensitive suffered defeat by the Islamic Democratic Alliance, which is the driving force, the Pakistan Muslim League, has acted in alliance with the party "Jamaat-e-Islami." The Prime Minister was nominated the leader of the League of Mian Nawaz Sharif. In 1992 "the Jamaat-e-Islami" left the alliance soon discovered major differences between Ishaq Khan and Sharif, leaving the latter was dismissed April 18, 1993. Presidential decree, however, was ruled unconstitutional by the Supreme Court of Pakistan, and May 26, Sharif returned to his post. But the contradictions were not resolved because Sharif wanted to remove from the text of the Constitution provisions that gave the president the right to dissolve the highest state authorities. The conflict was resolved on July 17 by the military, which was dismissed and Sharif and Ishaq Khan. The interim government led by the former vice-president of the World Bank Moeen Qureshi, head of the State was entrusted to the Chairman of the Senate. A new election won PPN, and in October 1993 Bhutto returned to the prime minister. In November, the parliament elected President of one of the leading functionaries of the PPN Sardar Farooq Ahmad Khan Leghari. Accusing the government of incompetence, corruption and violation of the law, Leghari to dismiss him and dissolved the parliament on November 5 and the legislatures of the provinces. Bhutto and her husband Asif Zardari were accused of hiding income in the UK, Switzerland and other countries. Prime Minister of the new government was the oldest politician Meradzh Khalid. In February 1997 elections brought a landslide victory of PML, which has won more than two thirds of the seats in the National Assembly, and allowed Sharif to form a cabinet. He managed to legal means to deprive the president to dismiss the government and stop the activities of legislative bodies. Leghari was forced in December 1997 to resign because of disagreements with the prime minister on the issue, as well as on the composition of the Supreme Court. The same month, the new president was elected retired judge Rafiq Tarar. In May 1998, Pakistan conducted nuclear tests in response to similar tests in India carried out a month earlier. U.S. imposed sanctions against both countries, which is especially sensitive to the impact on Pakistan of its weak economy. The Prime Minister is not only faced with economic difficulties, but also with the opposition his proposed constitutional changes, according to which the establishment of Islam should play a major role in the interpretation of the laws of the Constitution. Because the authorities the opportunity to interpret which of their decrees are based on Islamic law, federal executive bodies actually derived from the legal control of the state. The government's opponents point out that thereby threatens the revival of Pakistan's dictatorial regime. In early October 1999 in Pakistan, there was a military coup led by General Pervez Musharraf stood up who moved Sharif. Offset was all the executive at both the federal and local level, in all four provinces. As a result of these events, membership of Pakistan in the Commonwealth was suspended, and a number of international organizations (including the IMF) has warned of a possible termination of financial assistance in the event that will not be restored democratic system of government.