From the middle of I millennium BC. e. in the society of ancient China emerged as a very significant change in the economic and social relations, and in the area of political life and ideology. By this time, as a result of civil wars of the many kingdoms that existed previously in China, there are not more than ten. The most powerful among them the kingdom of Chu, Qin, Wei, Zhao, Han, Qi and Yang - "seven strongest," as they are called sources. During this period, which is known in the history of China under the traditional name Warring States, or Warring States, and dates from 481 (sometimes 403) - 221 years. BC. e., set the stage for the formation of a huge ancient Chinese empire that stretched during its greatest territorial distribution of the Gobi Desert in the north to the South China Sea in the south and from the Liaodong Peninsula in the east to the mountains of the Pamirs in the west. Established at the end of the III. BC. e. Empire lasted until the end of the II. n. e., when new, even more significant changes in the socio-economic relations have led to its crisis and collapse.
Development of socio-economic relations
Warring States period was a time of significant change in the development of the productive forces, which was a prerequisite for the development of techniques for processing iron. To VI. BC. e. in ancient China, in fact, still prevailed Bronze Age. The guns that were used in crafts and agriculture, where a very primitive. Not yet possible to determine exactly when China began in iron processing. Based on the data of ancient Chinese written sources, it happened within the VI. BC. e. Archaeological excavations of recent years indicate that in the period of Warring States implements iron widely spread.
Progress in agriculture
The use of iron tools for the rapid development of agriculture. According to the data available in the work of the late philosopher V - start the IV. BC. e. Moe Dee and in other ancient sources, in this period in ancient China used the plow with an iron plowshare, iron sickle, scythe, a shovel, a hoe for weeding and loosening the earth and other implements. This information is confirmed by excavations made in 1950 in Henan Province, north of the Yellow River, where they were discovered dating to the III. BC BC. iron tools, among them iron hoes and plowshares for plows. With the use in agriculture plow with an iron plowshare has spread plowing with oxen and made possible a deeper plowing. Importance acquired fertilize the fields. In the treatises of philosophers and scientists of the time Mencius (IV-III centuries. BC. E.) And Xun Zi (III c. BC. E.) Repeatedly refers to the deep plowing and fertilizer application. However plow agriculture spread slowly and unevenly. Relatively broad application it received at this time just to the north of China.
The use of fertile loess soils middle basin of the Yellow River was difficult due to droughts and floods. The river often changed direction, flooded fields, destroying crops. Loess soil properties are such that even a moderate deficiency in moisture leads to disastrous drought, but if the field provided with the necessary amount of water, they provide a rich harvest. For the development of agriculture in these areas was especially necessary to carry out irrigation. Steel shovel made possible the creation of large canals, dams, and levees. In many cases, a channel was due to transport and primarily for military purposes, but, as the famous ancient Chinese historian Sima Qian (145-86 years. BC. E.), In the presence of sufficient water, and they were used for irrigation from each Canal residents has an enormous number of small ditches that carry water to the fields. However, in this period, and begin to build a relatively large channel especially for irrigation.
The first reliable evidence of the creation of large-scale irrigation are the middle of I millennium BC. e. Thus, by the end of V - IV in the beginning. BC. e. sources include building a channel unto the earth in the north of the modern province of Henan. In 486 BC. e. in the kingdom of Chu held a so-called Hangu, or Han Canal, linking the Yangtze River to the Huaihe River, the bed of which later became part of the famous Grand Canal. In 316 BC. e. channel was dug, unto the earth in Chengdu. This channel is used by the residents of Sichuan Province to the present. Here, at the end of the III. BC. e. has established an extensive irrigation system fed by the river Min River. In 247 BC. e. in the kingdom of Qin was held at that time, a grand canal "Zheng Guo" in length 300 li (about 120 km). He joined the Jinghe River and Lohz and irrigate 40 thousand ching fields (about 200 hectares). Conducting channel "Zheng Guo", as mentioned in the sources, one of the reasons to strengthen the kingdom of Qin. This channel was the main link large irrigation system, created in the second half of the II. BC. e. During the Warring States appeared specialists for the irrigation. Thus, the construction of the canal in the kingdom of Qin led a renowned expert on the excavation Zheng Guo, after whom was named the channel.
However, isolated and constantly warring kingdoms could not coordinate their efforts in the field of irrigation development. Uncoordinated and directed only to gain advantage of the separate kingdoms in some cases leads to a violation of water regime and result in, a great disaster. So, for example, protecting the embankment, built to protect the kingdom of Qi from periodic flooding flat lands along the right bank of the Yellow River have caused devastating floods of the Yellow River in the neighboring kingdoms and Zhao Wei.
Agriculture was the basis of the economic life of ancient Chinese kingdoms. In northern China, the most important were the culture of wheat, millet and sorghum, in the south - rice crop. During this period, significant development of horticulture and gardening, especially cultivation of mulberry trees.
For centuries cultivation carried communities. Slavery is not replaced free farmers from cropping areas. Throughout the history of ancient China's agricultural production was supported mainly by free farmers. This was one of the reasons why a lot of respect to agriculture, which according to many ancient Chinese sources. Agriculture is considered the most worthy and honorable occupation.
The development of crafts and trades
The use of iron led to the rapid development of the craft. Iron produced as tools and weapons. The kingdom of Chu and Han famous iron swords, Zhao - shovels, Qin - harpoons and lances. To IV-III centuries. BC. e. tools and weapons made of iron being ubiquitous and begin to displace bronze and copper.
As the political and economic treatise "Guan Zi", for the most part made up, apparently in IV-III centuries. BC. e., in China at that time was known 467 mountains, where copper ore was mined, and 3609 of the mountains, which produces iron. Of course, one can not completely rely on such an accurate count, but the general idea of the level of development of ore that information, of course, give.
From the "Historical Notes" Sima Qian is aware of at this time of the largest iron ore industries, to persons.
High craftsmanship distinguished tombs excavated at Warring States period, a variety of copper and bronze, mirrors, vessels, ornamental parts of chariots, weapons.
Reached a high level of weaving, especially silk weaving, and ceramics, woodworking and crafts paint, as evidenced along with the written sources and material culture. So, relating to this period, tissue samples, and in particular, a fragment of painting on silk, were found in recent excavations in the vicinity of Changsha City - in the kingdom of Chu. Here were found a variety of pottery and numerous items of lacquer, of which there are tables, plates, cups, glasses, and handle axes and spears, sheathed swords, shields, and bows.
Civil engineering has developed rapidly. Create stunning palaces of kings and nobles, built cities, erected powerful defenses. At this time, the northern borders of the kingdom of Qin, Zhao and Yan walls were built to defend against the raids of nomadic tribes, who later links of the Great Wall. And the line of fortifications constructed in China.
Wooden model boats. From burial time Elder Han in Changsha (Hunan Province).
Time Chzhango marked success in shipbuilding. Especially famous for the manufacture of ships coastal kingdom. Old Chinese court gives a well-preserved wooden model shestnadtsativeselnoy big boats, recently discovered by archaeologists during the excavation of ancient tombs in Hunan. Even in this remote epoch Chinese invented a primitive compass, which was originally used for land travel, and then began to be used by Chinese sailors.
Further developed social division of labor. Philosopher Mo Di tell artisans various specialties: skilled casters, carpenters, craftsmen of jewelry, specialists in manufacturing vehicles, ceramics, etc. There has been some specialization of craft production in some regions. Qi kingdom famous for its silk and linen fabrics, its capital - the city of Linzi - was the largest at that time the center of weaving. Here, due to the convenient location of the development was particularly hydrochloric and fishing. In the Shu (in Sichuan), rich ore deposits, Lintsyun city has become one of the most important centers of mining and processing of iron. At that time the largest centers of iron industries were in the realm of Nanyang Han and Handan - the capital of the kingdom of Zhao. In the kingdom of Chu Hofey city was famous for its leather goods, Changsha, jewelry.
All these data indicate a relatively high level of social division of labor, the emergence of craft production, is designed not only to order, but also on the market, and this in turn is an indication of the further development of commodity production. However overall economy continued to maintain the natural character.
Trade. The growth of cities
In the V-III centuries. BC. e. significantly increased trade exchange within the realms. Strengthened trade ties between China and the kingdoms of the neighboring tribes. The northern and western tribes, Chinese merchants bought slaves, horses, cattle, sheep skin and wool, the tribes that lived in the south of China - ivory, dyes, precious metals, pearls.
Merchants began to play a significant role in the economic and then political realms. Thus, in the kingdom of Wei was a major dignitary trader Bai Hui (IV c. BC. E.), In the famous Qin coper Lu Bu-wei (III c. BC. E.) Served as first counselor. In the kingdom of Qi, which in economic treatise "Guan Zi" says: "rich merchants ... are the strengths of our state, "seized power rich family Tian. It is characteristic that in this period stronger and was considered to be a rich kingdom, where there were a number of large traders.
Sources indicate an increase at this time the number of cities and major expansion. There are big cities such as the capital of the kingdom of Qi Linzi city, where, according to the historian Sima Qian, there were 70 thousand households. As drafted in the III. BC. e. treatise "Warring States tse" ("Warring Policy"), the name of which is the origin of the traditional name of this period, it is noted that while in the big cities of antiquity had no more than three thousand families, it is now a city with a population of 10 thousand families can seen everywhere. Many of the old walled cities (for example, the city Linzi, Ji Ying, etc.) have become in this period in large commercial and industrial centers. However, in important transit routes created new cities such as the city Hofey in the kingdom of Chu.
In VI. BC. e. - together with the slave-holding states of West Asia and Greece - in the kingdom of Jin first appeared in China metal money. Soon they began to cast in other kingdoms of ancient China. However, in different realms money had a different shape: the Chu they took the form of a square, in Qi and Yang - the form of knives or swords, in Zhao, Han Wei - a form of spades to Qin cast round money with a square hole in the middle.
Were different in the different kingdoms and the system of weights and measures. Between kingdoms were established customs outpost, where merchants, the transition from one realm to another, charge more trade duties. With the expansion of economic and trade relations and the development of currency, this difference of coins, weights and measures, and the availability of a set of customs borders become an obstacle to further development of trade.
Increased exploitation of the agricultural population. Stratification of the community
Development of productive forces, the growth of trade and the money led to increased income inequality and accelerate the process of differentiation of the community. This was facilitated by increased exploitation of commoners. By the middle of I millennium BC. e. community connections are considerably weakened. In some kingdoms there was a change of the system of taxation. Was introduced land tax paid by the grain of the share of the crop, and if before the tax is imposed on the community as a whole, now a unit of taxation became a separate family. The reform of taxation has accelerated decomposition communities worse off freemen. About the burdens the tax burden and the plight of the agricultural population of the free report could indicate Li Kui - high official of Wei, who lived in the V-IV century. BC. e.
"Now - reported Li Kui - a family of five consumers treated area of arable land of 100 mu. Annually collects from 1 mu dan half (grain), (whole crop) is 150 tribute grain. After payment of the land tax of one-tenth of the harvest is 135 tributes (grain). A man eats a month and a half tan, to feed five people per year will take 90 tributes. The remaining 45 tributes. A tribute is 30 tsyaney therefore only possible to gain tsyaney 1350. Less spending on the sacrifices and religious festivals, spending 300 tsyaney remain tsyaney 1050. Every person should have to spend on clothes 300 tsyaney, clothes for 5 people want tsyaney 1500. Consequently, for the family is not enough 450 tsyaney. And do not take into account unexpected costs due to accidents, illness, death, funerals ... "
This passage shows that even in ordinary farming family could buy clothes. It is significant that all the calculations are done by the author in terms of money.
Land tax in the kingdom of Wei, one-tenth of the harvest was minimal rate of tax. In other kingdoms, it was significantly higher. So, in the kingdom of Lu, he was one third of the harvest of the farmer, in the Chi - two-thirds. In addition to the land tax assessment existed canvas and silk, and in a number of kingdoms were introduced and other burdensome exactions.
Furthermore, the community was required to perform a number of duties. Amid the incessant civil wars between kingdoms was particularly heavy military conscription. In eight families who formed a neighborhood community, one should give the recruit, and the remaining seven have supplied and transported supplies and fodder for the army. Cartage service was the most burdensome. The famous ancient Chinese general and military theorist Sun Tzu, who lived at the end of VI - V in the beginning. BC. e., even considered it to be one of the main causes of the ruin of the farmers. Reflected on how detrimental the economy of farmers obligation to supply the army and cartage service can be judged by the following comments by Sun Tzu: "When you raise one hundred thousandth army for the campaign for 1000 if ... sick of the road and can not get to work 700 thousand . families. " According to calculations by Sun Tzu, in the wars of the need to provide and maintain an army "... the property of the people is reduced by seven-tenths of ...".
With the advent of coinage and distribution of monetary po'luchilo development of usury. And especially widely practiced usury with loans to impoverished communes. Once in bondage to moneylenders, commoners finally ruined. Land impoverished community members gradually passed into the hands of their creditors, are the actual owners of acquired fields.
By the middle of I millennium BC. e. in a number of kingdoms began to trade land transactions. First sold only homestead land, orchards and gardens, but eventually traded and became field. Since then, large estates were established on the basis of land purchase.
With the expansion in the Warring States period, the practice of buying and selling land even stronger stratification within communities. Characteristically, the end of the period described in the sources (for example, the philosopher porizvedenii III. BC. Oe. Han Fei) appear information about the use in agriculture of employees.
Development of slavery
If agriculture in V-III centuries. still the leading role played free labor of farmers, community members, in general, in the economic life of ancient Chinese kingdoms during this period, increasing the role of slave labor. Sources provide information on the existence at the time the various forms of slavery and the wide spread of slaveholding relations. Was used to denote the set of terms of slaves: Well, Bay, Tong, Shi, Fu Jie, ny, it, etc. Depending on the source of bondage, sex and age, belonging to private individuals or state and changed the name of the slaves.
The most common terms of slavery had been well, and Tong Bay. Well, the term meant slave-man Bay - a slave, well Bay - slaves at all. Tong term mostly applied to young slaves belonging to private individuals and are usually employed in agriculture, handicrafts, etc. Often slaveholders owned hundreds tunnel. Already the most number shows that they could not only be a domestic servant. Terms such as shea butter, Fu Jie, usually designated domestic servants. Often the terms of slavery were used in combination with each other: for example, well-Bay Fu Bay, tun-well, n-well, etc. In many cases, they were preceded by terms such as Guangya - state, raw - a private, gun - palace, Jia - owned by private economy and family.
There are two main categories of slaves: slaves private and public servants, and for this period is characterized by the development of private slavery.
The main source of slavery was still the enslavement of prisoners of war. War with the nomadic and semi-nomadic tribes and continuous wars between kingdoms were given a large influx of slaves. "When connected captured prisoners, they are divided as rewards and awards," - said, "Kuan-tzu." Neighboring tribes ancient Chinese kingdoms were viewed as potential slaves. This is, in particular, may indicate that emerged at this time on the northern periphery of China Hun Chinese called "evil slaves" - well-hsiung.
An important source of public condemnation of slavery was a crime. For a hereditary class oppression, tribal in origin aristocracy, interested in preserving the remnants of a class society in the primitive society, to affirm old traditions and norms. Violation of ancient traditions and laws punished contacting state slaves and criminals and members of his family. Now, with the efforts of the community and strengthening the expansion of private property rights, new, tougher laws against the poor, thieves and "bandits." In slavery began to pay the poor poor, the homeless and vagrants. According to Sima Qian, in the middle of the IV. BC. e. in the kingdom of Qin "all losers and those who are poor because of laziness, were given as slaves along with their wives and children." Depending on the seriousness of the offense enslaving prisoners could be temporary, life and inheritance.
Enslavement of criminals are commonplace. Ancient dictionary "Shaw wen", compiled in 121 BC. e., says that all men are subjected to criminal punishment, called well, women - Bay. Condemnation of slavery for violation of laws throughout the ancient history of China has been one of the main sources of state slavery. Therefore it is extremely common in the sources that the term ("convicted" or "criminal") is often used to refer to slaves. That is how it interprets one of the earliest commentators "Historical Notes" Sima Qian, noting that "the common name for men and women that are (term) well." Characteristically, the term that is often used in relation to other terms of slavery, for example, that well, that well-Bay, To-Do. Of course, not always the conviction led to the enslavement of the criminal, because there were other forms of punishment, and will not, in all cases, and that the term can be identified with the terms of slavery. This was the name of all who have been criminal penalties. However, since slavery, not only criminals, but also their family members in three generations, it was a very common form of punishment, a term that, according to some researchers, in most cases means public servants. Big parties that used by the state for the construction, transport and irrigation works, and in the mines and public workshops. Like other slaves branded with shaved heads, chained in iron collars, they were dressed in red rags - a symbol of a shameful punishment. So sometimes sources call them "dressed in red."
With the expansion of the community and community members developed ruin debt slavery, which since that time has become one of the main sources of private slavery. Act of selling into slavery of the free, like the act of buying a slave, designed the drawing purchased the contract, the so-called danshu, which was kept in slave-owner. Freed slave could only be accomplished by destroying the Danshui.
Acquired considerable size in this period the slave trade and, in particular, non-Chinese slave trade. It is known, for example, that slave domains Shu and Ba hunted slaves in what is now the province of Yunnan and sold them to local slave owners. Slaves were bought and sold freely, gave and gave for debt.
Growth of private slavery. The use of slave labor.
Slave labor was used in the fields, in the crafts, in construction work, in cattle. There are large private slave economy. Individual slave owners had several hundreds or even thousands of slaves. For example, 10 thousand slaves tung) was a well-known merchant and landowner Lu Bu-wei. Several thousand slaves (Tun) had a major landowner Miao Du. Sources say about the owners of iron and salt industries taking advantage of the work of hundreds of companies of slaves. According to Sima Qian, in the kingdom of Qi, where slavery was less developed than in the other kingdoms of ancient China, Diao Jiang gained a huge fortune using slave labor, including the slaves, prisoners of war (well-lu), on fishing, in salt production and transport of goods. Slave labor is the famous application in agriculture. However, due to the specifics of the means at our disposal sources and the complexity of the analysis of terms that denote the direct producers of material goods, the question of the extent to which the labor of slaves in this and in the preceding period of ancient Chinese history was used in agriculture, remains unresolved .
It is significant that in the sources relating to the period under consideration, the slaves in many cases act as the main type of property and the main criterion of wealth. Thus, the resulting bio-Zhuo Shi - the largest owner of the ironworks workshops Lintsyuna, who lived in the III. BC. e., Sima Qian said that his wealth "reached 1000 slaves (tun) '. Elsewhere Sima Qian gives the following data about rich people who lived in the same Lintsyune decades later: "In Lintsyune were many rich, Zhuo Wang-sun had 800 slaves (Tun), Cheng Cheng - a few hundred."
Sharpening of class contradictions
Social and economic changes in society caused a sharp intensification of class contradictions. Despite the bias in our possession sources, trying to be silent revolt of the oppressed masses, we meet several times a brief mention of the blind movements. Along with a number of indirect data are eloquent on the strengthening of the class struggle in the VI-III century. BC. e.
In the book "Zuo Zhuan", a comment to the annals of the kingdom of Lu "Chun Qiu" ("Spring and Autumn"), which contains a record of events from 722 to 481 BC. e., provides information both about the individual cases of murder slaves to their masters, and of slave revolts. One of these movements is the theme of the struggle for the burning of Danshui, according to Zheng kingdom in VI. BC. e. By this time, include information about the uprising of slaves and free the poor, headed by a Tao Zhe. It embraced, apparently, a large area. As the philosopher Chuang Tzu (369-286), the armed rebels "freely moved around the country, attacked the state raided the house, removed the cattle and people." The sources relating to the period of Warring States, often brief, but expressive mention of the "Troubles". Characteristically, in the extremely ill Code, introduced by Lee in the forging of Wei, the laws "of thieves" and "robbers" were in first place. Data sources on the introduction of the time in a number of ancient Chinese kingdoms (eg, in the realms of the Han, Wei and Qin) of new, extremely strict laws also provide evidence of exacerbation of class contradictions.
Assumed more acute forms, and the struggle within the ruling class. Representatives of a new property of the nobility - the rich slave owners who did not have any hereditary origin or titles, are gaining weight in society, while the old hereditary aristocracy gradually impoverished and deprived of their political influence.
With the strengthening of the power of money and wealth destroyed the old system of succession of posts. In some realms office officials are bought and sold, which opened up the estate of the nobility access to the state apparatus. Once at the helm, the representatives of the nobility began to pursue reforms to strengthen its position. They opposed the privileges of aristocratic origin, and against patriarchal and tribal remnants, unifying the country and demanded the legalization of free sale of land. Gain a new, proprietary, nobility and attempts at reform in its interests met with strong opposition from the hereditary aristocracy. The clash of interests of different social groups has resulted in a bitter struggle between political groups and ideologies.
The emergence of ideologies of Taoism, Confucianism and fatszya
The most significant of these currents were Taoism, Confucianism and fatszya, which is conventionally called the school "legists" ("scribes"). Political platforms put forward by the representatives of these areas were an expression of interest, on the one hand, the aristocracy: the old, hereditary, and a new, proprietary, and on the other - operated agricultural population - communes. Characteristically, the creators of these preachers and scholars often were people of humble and poor. Some of them came from the lowest strata of society, even from among the slaves.
The founder of Taoism, said semi-legendary sage Lao Tzu, who lived, according to legend, in the VI-V centuries. BC. e. and created a philosophical treatise, known as the "Tao Te Ching" ("Book of Tao and Te"). Doctrine set forth in the "Tao Te Ching", was to some extent an expression of passive protest against increased agricultural community tax oppression, destruction and enslavement of freemen. Compassion for people and their suffering cuts across all content "Tao Te Ching." Condemning wealth, luxury and nobility, Lao Tzu was against tyranny and cruelty of the rulers, against violence and war. Social ideal of ancient Taoism was a return to the primitive community. Lao Tzu contrasted contemporary reality, when the rich and famous are buried in luxury, but "people are starving because too high fees and taxes," times ancient times, when there was inequality and oppression and "people did not seek to acquire wealth." However, along with a passionate denunciation of injustice and violence, Lao Tzu preached renunciation of the struggle, pushing the theory of "non-action". The theory of "non-action", according to which a person had to obediently follow the Tao - the natural flow of life, which is the basic principle of the social and ethical concepts of Taoism. Confucianism emerged as an ethical and political doctrine in the late VI-V centuries. BC. e. and later earned an exceptionally wide spread. Its founder is a preacher born in the kingdom of Lu - Kun-tse (Confucius, traditional dates living 551-479 years.). Confucians were the ideologues of those sections of the aristocracy, who were interested in preserving the remnants of patriarchal and tribal and communal land tenure. They justified class inequality, but negatively related to enrichment and elevation commoners. According to the teachings of Confucius, everyone in the community had to deal with exact locations. "The Emperor must be sovereign, a citizen-subject, father - the father, son - son" - Confucius said. Confucians insisted on the inviolability of patriarchal attitudes and attached great importance to the cult of the ancestors.
Representatives fatszya direction ("legists") expressed mainly the interests of the new, proprietary nobility. They demanded the establishment of private ownership of land, ending civil wars between kingdoms and pushed for reforms that meet the demands of the time. This line of social thought flourished in IV-III centuries. BC. e. The most prominent members were fatszya Shang Yang (d. 338), and Han Fei (III c. BC. E.). "Legist" his theory of political and state structure. In their works the first time in the history of China put forward the idea of "legal law" as an instrument of government. In contrast, the Confucians, guided by ancient traditions and customs, "Legist" believed that the basis of governance should be based on strict and binding on all the laws (fa) that meet the needs of today. They were supporters of a strong bureaucratic state.
Taoism and the teachings fatszya were in extreme opposition to Confucianism. The most severe forms of the struggle between the Confucians adopted and ideologues fatszya.
The struggle for political dominance. Gain the kingdom of Qin
The political situation in China Socio-economic changes taking place in the society of ancient China during the Warring States, and aggravation in this V-IV century. BC. e. time of the internal conflict led to frequent civil wars between different kingdoms. As mentioned, the most powerful of them in V-IV century. BC. e. kingdoms were Qi Wei, Zhao, Han, Chu, Qin and Yang. . The most ancient of the number "seven fittest" was the kingdom of Qi. Situated 'on the coast of the Bohai Sea and the Yellow Sea, it is primarily engaged in the territory of modern Shandong. Extremely fertile lands of the kingdom of Qi were the basis for the development of various sectors are agriculture and, in particular, sericulture, and the coastal location of the kingdom led to the development of salt in it and fishing. However, there was no lack of Qi and mineral wealth. Generated here iron was known for its high quality. Qi was a major cultural center of ancient China. At the turn of the IV-III centuries. BC. e. tsiskoy in the capital for the first time in the history of China was established a sort of "Academy", a gathering known scientists and philosophers of the time. By the beginning of the period in the kingdom of Qi held important military and administrative and financial reform. The introduction of these reforms territorial-administrative division, changing the system of taxation of the agricultural population and the establishment of a state monopoly on salt and iron were the result of an extraordinary gain Tsiskogo kingdom.
Wei, Zhao and Han occupied territory once powerful kingdom of Jin, disintegrated in 403 BC. e. as a result of the struggle between the major aristocratic birth. Their territory is the region of ancient Chinese tribes spread was the most populated. Especially crowded was situated in the fertile plain of the kingdom of Wei, in which the density of the population could not compare him to any other modern kingdom of ancient China. Lands of these kingdoms were rich deposits of metal ores, especially iron, which, from the data contained in the "Zuo Zhuan", was first mined and processed it in the realm of Jin. During the Warring States were here at that time the largest centers of iron. Iron weapons from the kingdom of Han was famous throughout China. The largest of the three kingdoms was Zhao, who was considered one of the most powerful militarily kingdoms of ancient China.
Chu kingdom began to play an important role from the beginning of the VI. BC. e. Strengthening of the kingdom of Chu has benefited in it reforms against the rule of the aristocracy. In IV. BC. e. Chu was the most powerful kingdom of the "seven most powerful." Its territory located in the basins of the Huaihe and Yangtze, covering more than a third of the area, which took up all the ancient Chinese kingdom in general. Earth Chuskogo kingdom were rich forests, deposits of iron, tin, copper and gold. As shown by recent excavations, in the kingdom of Chu high development reached ironworks, bronze, woodworking, paint and other crafts. Archaeological materials and literary monuments indicate that the period of Warring States was for Chuskogo kingdom heyday of its ancient and unique culture, which had a great impact on the further cultural development of southern China.
Qin kingdom was located in the north-west of China. On the territory it is almost as Chu, but was less populated. Being in a neighborhood with such strong kingdoms, as the Chu and Jin, it is constantly under threat of invasion. For a long time the Qin took to them on the defensive, focussing on the seizure of the north-western tribes zhunov. To V in. BC. e. through successful wars against these tribes Qin greatly expanded their territory. Breaking up at the end of V century. BC. e. Jin kingdom and intensification of the struggle between the central kingdoms to some extent diverted attention from the Qin dangerous neighbors. More strongly than in other realms, holding it in the middle of the IV. BC. e. reforms, to promote social and economic development, led to its rapid increase. At the end of the IV. BC. e. Qin udae could rival the strength and power even with a powerful kingdom, as Chu.
Yan kingdom located in the extreme northeast. Its capital - the city of Ji - was located in the area of modern Beijing. Yan was smaller and weaker than the other from the "seven most powerful," but it was of great strategic and political importance. Hence came the important way to South Manchuria and North Korea. Communication by way of trade between the population and the political northeastern part of ancient China and the tribes who inhabited the territory of Manchuria and North Korea have existed since ancient times. There were sent from Yan waves of settlers who settled there and created a permanent settlement.
Yan did not take a particularly large part in the internecine struggle of kingdoms. Intense war it led only to the realm of Chi, which is the end of the IV. BC. e. continuously attacked by Yan, using the heated there by this time the internal unrest.
In addition to "the seven strongest" in China's Warring States period, the top were several kingdoms, among which are those of the kingdom, as Zheng, Soup, Lu, Western and Eastern Zhou. Amid the intense war between "family stronger" these small kingdoms could not maintain their independence and during the middle of the IV. to mid-III. BC. e. were gradually subordinated stronger. Zheng Han kingdom was conquered, Soup - a kingdom of Qi, Zhou was joined to the Kingdom of Qin, and A have seized the kingdom of Chu.
Strengthening the civil wars and the struggle for the creation of the ancient Chinese empire
Development of handicrafts, trade and exchange, the need to establish control over the irrigation system created certain prerequisites for combining ancient Chinese kingdoms into one state. Existence in China many independent kingdoms that waged constant war with each other, become an obstacle to further economic development.
Existing disparate and constantly warring kingdoms into a strong state was dictated by class interests and slave-owning aristocracy, as in the period of Warring States aggravation of social struggle in the separate kingdoms created a threat to the ruling class as a whole. This was required and increased the risk of permanent predatory raids of nomadic tribes, especially the north, which in the III. BC. e. formed a powerful tribal alliance, led by the leaders of the tribe of the Huns.,
For the III. BC. e. civil wars between different kingdoms reached particularly tense. During the wars in the first place ranking to the kingdom of Qin,
Strengthening of the kingdom of Qin. Shang Yang reforms
As already noted, to the IV. BC. e. Qin did not actively participate in the internecine struggle for hegemony kingdoms and was relatively weak among the other major kingdoms of ancient China. However, since the reign of Xiao Gong (361-338) began its rapid increase.
Fenced natural boundaries - the Yellow River and the mountain ranges, the kingdom of Qin was more or less protected from enemy incursions. At the same time, it enjoys a convenient strategic position to attack the neighboring kingdoms and tribes. Qin kingdom land, located in the basins of Weihe, Jinghe and Luohe, was very fertile. In the middle of the III. BC. e. simultaneously with the creation of the channel "Zheng Guo" here were carried out to drain the marshes, which greatly increased the productivity of the fields. Holding irrigation of these areas have become the most fertile regions of ancient China. On the territory of the kingdom of Qin were important trade routes, and trade with neighboring tribes was one of the sources of his wealth. Of particular importance to the state of Qin represent trade with the northern tribes - intermediaries in trading kingdoms of ancient Chinese and Central Asian countries. The main export items of Qin were iron and iron products, salt and silk. Of pastoralist north and north-west tsintsy get wool, skins and slaves. In the southwest of the kingdom of Qin traded with the people of Ba and Shu areas. Fertile land and mountain wealth Shu and Ba, lying to the same at the junction of trade routes that were far to the south-west as far as India, have become one of the first facilities expansion Qin kingdom.
In the middle of the IV. dong. e. in the kingdom of Qin were carried out important reforms that have contributed to its economic, military and political consolidation. These reforms carried dignitary Qin Shang Yang kingdom - one of the most prominent members and zealous advocates teaching fatszya. Reflecting the interests of the new, proprietary nobility, Shang Yang reforms were aimed at the destruction of community ties and paving the way for further development of the relations of private ownership in the Qin kingdom.
Of particular importance is the land reform, which inflicted a decisive blow to communal land tenure. According to the statutes of Shang Yang land became freely bought and sold. "In the fields - as the source, - abolished the old boundary lines," were allowed to "work the land in unlimited amounts." Legalization of sale and mortgage of land inevitably entailed, on the one hand, the rapid destruction of the commune, was losing ground in their possession before rightfully belonging to the community, and on the other - the concentration of land in the hands of a new, trade-usurious nobility. The disintegration of the community is also accelerated and the law on forced fragmentation of extended families, which read: "If a family has two or more men, and they are not shared between farms, with each taking a double tax."
In order to centralize the state Shang Yang was conducted new administrative division of the territorial principle, violate the old-border, apparently related to its origin back to the old tribal divisions. All the kingdom of Qin was divided by 41 (and according to some, 31) County (xiang). Counties fragmented into smaller units, each headed were placed government officials. The smallest administrative units were related mutual guarantee association of 10 and 5 families. Mutual responsibility obliges all members of these families of mutual responsibility to answer for the crimes of each. As punishment, they were threatened with conversion to public servants. Punishment were also families who escaped at the offender.
Shang Yang reforms legalization of private ownership of land and promoting land grabbing them were directly related to the change in the time of collection of tax.
Instead of the former land tax is 1/10 of the harvest, Shang Yang introduced a new tax in accordance with the amount of arable land. This provided the ruling class Qin kingdom annual recurring income that is independent of the harvest. Droughts, floods, crop failures, now all the weight fell on the farmers. The new system of taxation provided huge funds needed for the rulers of the kingdom of Qin warfare.
During the long war with the north-western tribes of the kingdom of Qin acquired great military experience and has developed its military system, which took final shape as a result of the military reforms of Shang Yang. Qin army was reorganized and rearmed. Its structure has been included cavalry. Chariots, who formed the basis of the military might of the old hereditary aristocracy, were excluded from the army. Bronze weapons gradually replaced by the new - of iron. Long coats men short changed, as the nomads, jacket, convenient for movement and combat. The army was divided into five and ten related system of collective responsibility. The soldiers did not show enough courage, being subjected to severe punishment. After the military reforms of Shang Yang Qin army was one of the most efficient armies of ancient Chinese kingdoms.
Shang Yang was created 18 degrees of nobility for military achievements. For everyone who was taken prisoner and killed one enemy relied degree. "Well-born at home, not having military merit, can no longer be on the rolls of the nobility," - said in the decree. However, the degree of nobility, who initially were given only for the military services, were later sold. Shang Yang believed that the need to establish a clear distinction between "noble" and the common people by the number of fields, houses, slaves, and the wealth of clothes, putting thus the basis for the social division of property principle.
Old hereditary aristocracy associated with the community and interested in maintaining patriarchal and tribal remnants, reforms of Shang Yang was dealt a heavy blow. In place of the nobility, strength and influence is based, as a rule, hereditary privilege, to the power in the kingdom of Qin came to know new - the military, trade and usury.
Reform efforts Shang Yang aroused strong dissatisfaction ancestral landed aristocracy. After the death of his patron, Syaoguna Shang Yang was forced to flee, but was captured and executed. However, all activities undertaken Shang Yang, remained in force.
Rating reforms of Shang Yang in modern historiography and general performance period
Shang Yang reforms and socio-economic importance of different opinions in contemporary Marxist historiography. Most researchers agree that the reforms of Shang Yang were aimed at the destruction of community ties and the assertion of private ownership of land.
However, this form of ownership, scientists describe differently, seeing it in the light of their common understanding of the laws of development of ancient Chinese society.
A number of researchers regards this as a feudal form of property. Among the historians who hold this view, we can identify two main areas: the supporters of feudalism in China from a very early time, at least since the beginning of the I millennium BC. e. - and those scientists who believe the initial period of Warring States period of feudal mode of production.
Proponents of the existence of feudalism in China since the end of II - early I millennium BC. e. believe that land reform Shang Yang marked the transition from the feudal system of land ownership to the feudal landlord system. With this transition, they link the Warring States period in the development of trade, commodity-money relations, the growth of cities, etc. Introduction to the VI-V centuries. BC. e. in a number of kingdoms of the new land tax, these scientists see as a shift from labor rent to rent products. Phenomena such as wage labor and small rent, they consider typical of the transition to the feudal landlord system. Supporters approval of feudalism in China during the Warring States see them as one of the symptoms of the transition from slavery to feudalism.
Many researchers tend to assume the appearance of this period of debt slaves and the private vestiges of slavery slavery in feudal formation. They point out that slavery continued to play a significant role in public life in this, and in the subsequent period of ancient Chinese history that slaves were set as in the craft and in the fields of labor is of great use. However, as in the main sectors of the economy - agriculture - the main producers were not slaves, peasants, tenants, common at this time of the slave relationship they regard only as a slave in the way of a feudal society.
However, a number of scientists, comparing the data from the history of China and the general historical patterns of development slaveholding formation in the Mediterranean and Near East, comes to the conclusion that the serious changes in the economic and social relations, politics, and ideology, which took place in ancient kingdoms during the Warring States and are reflected in the reforms of Shang Yang, marked a transition from the slave system to the feudal system, and from the attitude to development rannerabovladelcheskih slavery. They believe that the development in the period of Warring States commodity-money circulation, the appearance of metallic money, the growth and revitalization of cities, improved methods of agriculture, and the destruction of communities and the introduction of private ownership with the displacement of the hereditary, tribal in origin, property aristocracy aristocracy were the unmistakable signs of this transition. Was a prerequisite for the spread in China since the mid-I millennium BC. e. rail technology, which led to a rapid increase in the level of the productive forces. This was evidenced by the development of the transition between Chzhango private ownership of slaves and private slavery. However, along with the general phenomena of this stage of development of ancient Chinese society has its own specific features.
A specific feature of the formation of the slave in ancient China, as in most countries of the ancient East, was long-term preservation of the community and the high prevalence in agricultural production throughout the ancient history of China's labor-farming commune on slave labor. Since the late Warring States period, due to the gradual expansion of the community and the ruin of the community members in agriculture began to be used hired labor and the development of small receives rent - a phenomenon that is very typical of other slave of the ancient East.
Another feature is the coexistence of ancient Chinese society, along with the advanced forms of slavery such primitive forms of slavery, as a patriarchal domestic slavery samoprodazha free men and debt slavery, and debt slavery developed relatively late in China and widely spread, being probably the main source of private slavery . This could not but affect the overall character of slavery in ancient China and, in particular, as slaves.
The development in the V-III centuries. BC. e. private property and slave relations led to the aggravation of class contradictions and conflicts between the old hereditary landed aristocracy and the new commercial and usurious nobility. This struggle was expressed in the revolts and political upheavals, which we find brief mention in the sources, in a tense struggle ideologies. Widely spread in this period, Taoism, Confucianism, ancient, and other areas fatszya ultimately reflected the struggle of ideologies freemen, tribal aristocratic elite and members of the new, proprietary nobility.
Conquest of the kingdom of Qin
As a result of the reforms of Shang Yang Qin kingdom has become a strong centralized state.
Since the reign of Xiao Gong began a bitter struggle for the unification of Qin kingdom under its hegemony throughout ancient China. The first object of the aggressive policies of Xiao Gong was located east of the neighboring kingdom of Qin Wei. Tsin troops led by Shang Yang "became famous not only as a reformer and strategist, Wei inflicted a major defeat.
When following the Hsiao Kung rulers Tsin troops seized the land of Wei until the great bend of the Yellow River, the successful crossing of the Yellow River Qin forces facilitated the way for further gains. Since that time, Qin constantly been attacking to the east of the great bend in the Yellow River and the land of Wei Zhao and Han kingdom on earth, by allying to itself in parts of their territory.
In response to the aggressive actions of the kingdom of Qin Han, Zhao, Wei, Yan and Qi concluded a military alliance and act together against the Qin kingdom, but were defeated. Then Qin troops were defeated and the combined army Chzhaoskogo, Han and Veyskogo kingdoms. Weakening the Han and Wei and adding to a substantial part of the territory of present-day province of Sichuan, Qin kingdom faced the largest in size and most powerful kingdom of Chu, also claimed to be the leader. Chu signed a mutual assistance treaty with the kingdom of Qi. Tsin rulers spared no means to tear the kingdom from Chuskoe allies. Zasylaya in Chu spies acting bribery, cunning and downright deception, Qin finally managed to split the union and thwart agreements between Chu and other kingdoms. So insulated from the rest of the kingdoms of Chu, Qin opened hostilities against him and caused him a number of serious injuries. In 278 BC. e. Tsin troops invaded the kingdom of Chu, and captured his capital - the city Jn. As a result of this victory, Qin had annexed a large part of Chuskogo kingdom.
Undermining the power of the most dangerous of his rivals, Qin sent a new blow to continue for another considerable force Zhao kingdom. 'The war against Zhao was the most brutal and intense of all the wars that led Qin kingdom. According to sources, it chzhaostsy lost killed 450 thousand people, and the army of Qin - more than half of this amount.
Having suffered a severe defeat, Zhao could hardly with reinforcements sent by the kingdoms of Wei and Chu, in keeping the capital - the city of Handan.
By the middle of the III. BC. e. Qin kingdom had no equal in strength and power. Exhausted by continuous wars and internal unrest, had lost much of its territory, the ancient Chinese kingdoms were not able to provide further resistance Qin, and their final defeat was only a matter of time.
Ideology and Culture in China V - III centuries. BC. e.
The development of scientific knowledge and philosophy
Important changes in the socio-economic and political life of China with a major success in the development of culture.
The needs of agriculture produced a very early appearance in ancient China astronomical knowledge. Very early Chinese astronomers were able to calculate the time of the winter and summer solstice, solar and lunar eclipses. In the Warring States period in China has spread lunisolar calendar, the duration is calculated at about 365.25 days, and the duration of the month - to 29.53 hours. Due to the difference between the lunar and solar year to the calendar was further months: every 19 years - seven additional months.
In ancient chronicles preserved records of astronomical observations, the validity of many of them is confirmed by modern astronomy. So, starting from 240 BC. e. Chinese scientists have definitely noted every appearance of Halley's Comet, the mention of which was first made in the chronicles of the kingdom under Lou autumn 613 BC. e. At the time of Warring States, Chinese astronomers divided the firmament at the constellations. They are aware of the Milky Way, determined the position and appearance of a number of planets, gave names to the brightest stars. In IV. BC. e. Shi Shenem scientists was drafted first in the history of the world vy star catalog of 800 stars. By studying the movement of the stars, ancient Chinese astronomers have tried to change their location to predict weather changes.
The need to create irrigation facilities led to the development at the time of practical mathematical knowledge and, in particular, the geometry. The ancient Chinese were known properties of a right triangle, they established the equality of the square of the hypotenuse sum of squares of the legs.
Sources provide information about the development in the Warring States period, a basic knowledge of anatomy and medicine.
The development of basic scientific knowledge was the basis for the emergence of naive materialistic ideas. Trying to penetrate the secrets of nature, the ancient Chinese scientists have searched for the primary elements of things. As they see it, the basis of the material world were five elements: water, fire, wood, metal and earth. The ancient Chinese treatise of natural philosophy has focused on understanding and description of the physical properties of these basic elements.
Primitive ancient Chinese philosophy of nature is reflected in the chapter "Hung Fan" ("The Great Plan"), "Shu Ching" ("Book of History") and in the "I Ching" ("Book of Changes"). The traditional date of these works - XI-VII centuries. BC. e., however, as shown by recent studies prof. Kuo Mo-jo and other Chinese scholars, their writing should be referred to a later time. During the Warring States was created by unknown authors natural-philosophical treatise "Si particles Zhuang", setting out the doctrine of the material world in which natural materialistic view combined with some elements of dialectical thinking. One of the main ideas of this treatise - the variability of the current caused a struggle between two opposites: yang - light and injection - darkness. In the fight against these forces are born five elements - water, fire, wood, metal and earth - and the variety of things and events in the world. In the "C particles Zhuan" we find the doctrine of the exposition "triad" ("sky - earth - a man"), in which the person is not opposed to the sky and the earth, and with them is the same place in life.
V-III vekado n. e. was a period of intensive development of philosophical thought. At this time, originated major schools of Chinese philosophy. In the treatises of the time reflected the development of two major, areas of philosophy of materialism and idealism.
Naive materialistic ideas were developed in the teachings of Lao Tzu, was considered, as already mentioned, the founder of the ancient philosophy of Taoism. Teachings of Lao Tzu was later described in "Tao Te Ching", the text of which in the form in which it came to us, apparently, was made no earlier than IV-III centuries. BC. e. We have examined the social ideas of Taoism. We now turn to the philosophical content of the teaching. On the "Tao Te Ching", all things are made up of tiny particles of material qi. Fundamental philosophical category of "Tao Te Ching" is the concept of the Tao, which means in the literal translation of "path", "law." According to the teachings of Lao Tzu, the world is subject to a single law - Tao. Tao is based howling and the root of all, "the mother of all things." In the teachings of Laozi, it is opposed to the religious ideas of the "heavenly will" and serves as the law of necessity of nature. Tao is the defining feature of his naturalness. "A man should be the land, the land must be heaven, heaven follows the Tao, and the Tao follows naturally." In this position of the category revealed materialistic Tao. As an example of figurative naive materialist interpretation of the Tao can bring this parable philosopher IV-III centuries. BC. e. Chuang Tzu, and the butcher of veyskom ruler. The ruler of Wei, learning about the ability of one butcher hack bull three strikes, even with blunt ax, asked how he manages. Butcher said: "... I learned all my life Tao bull. Having studied the Tao animal, I can do this in three strokes, and my ax remains as sharp as ever. Others do it by five strokes and then they become dull ax. "
Naively materialistic doctrine of Lao-tzu was imbued with natural dialectical thinking. According to the "Tao Te Ching", the world is in constant motion and change, all things and phenomena in their development process turns into its opposite. "Incomplete becomes full, curved - straight, empty - filled, dilapidated - new." However, the foundation of the world, on the "Tao Te Ching" is the universal unity and not the struggle of opposites. Taoism is typical for a passive, contemplative otnoshznie to reality. Lao Tzu believed that people should not intervene in the natural course of life, should not violate natural law by their actions Tao.
The second most important category as set out in the "Tao Te Ching" doctrine is the notion of de, which acts as the discovery of Tao. Thanks to him, the Tao itself unknowable, manifests itself in the world of things and events, and in particular, in the person. Both of them are the basis of the world, both follow the "natural".
The ancient doctrine of the Tao, as a natural law of development and change in the world, has had a beneficial influence on the development of scientific knowledge and was in a sense the starting point for the further development of materialistic ideas in ancient China.
Materialist philosophy Yan Zhu
One of the leading representatives of the materialist trend in ancient Chinese philosophy, was living in the V-IV century. BC. e. in the realm of VEI atheist philosopher Zhu Yan, whose philosophy was closely associated with the ancient Taoism.
Unfortunately, the Yan Zhu and his teachings we have very poor data. After Yan Zhu has left no writings. Only a very brief information about him and his followers are in the works of ancient philosophers IV-III centuries. BC. e. Chuang-tzu and Mencius. But the main source, setting out the philosophy of Yang Chu is one of the chapters of the book "Le-tzu" - the product of a very complex, which includes texts related to different periods. "Le tsay" to come down to a quay was composed only in III-IV centuries. n. e. However a comparison and critical analysis of the data sources it can decide in general philosophy of this great thinker and materialist.
Yan Zhu denied the existence of any supernatural power was and insisted that everything in the world is subject to the law of natural necessity. According to his philosophy, the world is in constant change. Form of man's connection with reality Yan Zhu believed direct perception.
The main content of the teachings of Yang Zhu was naive materialist doctrine of man. Yan Zhu argued that man is part of the material world. Like all other creatures, it is composed of the five elements of material chi differs from other living beings only in that it has intelligence. Yan Zhu taught, "Man is like heaven and earth, and combines the nature of the five persistence. Most intelligent people living creature ... ".
Yan Zhu categorically denied the immortality of the soul and the existence of the afterlife. In his teachings, death is a natural phenomenon necessary. "All beings are born equal and equally die" - taught Yan Zhu, "In life, all things are different, in death they are all equal. In life, there are the wise and foolish, noble and commoner, and this is what distinguishes them (the people). In death, as there is corruption and destruction, decay and destruction - that's what makes them equal. " With the death of a person ceases to exist, his spirit disappears. "(By) law (nature) there is no immortality, says Jan-Zhu - ... (by) law (nature) there is no eternal life ...". Yan Zhu preached strongly against Confucian ancestor worship: "... do not put in mouth (dead) of pearls and precious stones, - he said - do not put (them) embroidered silk robes, do not sacrifice a bull and not be a luxury utensils. " Yan Zhu believed that people should not be interested in what will happen after his death. He called to treat death with philosophical indifference, as a natural, normal phenomenon and seek to maximize the joys of life. Yan Zhu demanded the full and complete development of the physical and spiritual nature of man and reasonable 'to meet his needs and desires. Opposing the Confucian morality, against the standards of conduct imposed by the man, limiting its natural development, Yan Zhu developed the doctrine of the free individual, subject only to its own nature, and following his natural inclinations. He considered the highest ethical ideal enjoyment of life and happiness of the individual, protecting the principle "all for myself." "We need to carry out what they desire our senses - said Zhu Yan, - you need to act the way he wants our soul."
Fighting materialistic and idealistic trends in philosophy
In Yan Zhu had many disciples and followers. His teaching is widely spread. Idealist philosophers vehemently against the teachings of Yang Zhu. Particularly violent attack exposed the doctrine of the Confucians. One of the major representatives of the idealist trend in ancient Chinese philosophy - Confucian Mencius (IV-III centuries. BC. E.) Accused Yang Zhu extreme selfishness and claimed that "(principle) Zhu Yan -" for himself "-is a denial of sovereign. "noting the widespread view Yan Zhu, Mencius called for the destruction of his teaching, as have a deleterious effect on the minds and undermining the foundations of Confucianism.
The struggle between idealism and materialism is reflected in the appearance in the Warring States period, a set of philosophies between them was intense ideological struggle From among Confucians at this time also highlighted a number of materialistically minded thinkers. Study of modern Chinese scientists show a materialistic ideas cosmogonic doctrine of Confucius. Thus, in the ethical and political work "Lun Yu" ("Conversations and judgments», V-IV centuries. BC. E.), On conversations of Confucius with his disciples, saying: "... all the phenomena of nature ... occur independently of Heaven, from the Deity, by themselves, naturally ... ". Materialist philosopher was a great thinker, a follower of Confucius Xun Zi (III c. BC. E.). Xun Zi denied the existence of "heavenly will," and believed that the sky-deifying other Confucians, is just a part of nature and has no knowledge that all natural phenomena are natural and do not depend on one's will. Xun Zi spent thinking about the active role of knowledge, based on the sensory perception of reality.
Overall, however, Confucianism, borrowed from the religious teachings of the concept of heaven as the supreme deity, developed on an idealistic basis. If Confucius himself did not show much interest in the philosophical problems of existence, his followers, in particular Mencius, fiercely opposed the materialist doctrine of Representatives, working status of "heavenly will," commands the people and exercised through the wise management of the sovereign.
Over time, the evolution towards idealism underwent Taoism. The followers of Lao Tzu perverted the original naive materialist essence of ancient philosophy of Taoism, giving an idealistic interpretation of the main philosophical category of Taoism - Tao. This evolution is found in the "Tao Te Ching", which contains the known elements of the idealist philosophy. Taoism finally emerges as mystical and idealist philosophy at Le Zi (V-IV centuries. BC. E.), Which tradition attributes composing the treatise known under the same name, and especially in the Chuang-tzu. However, even in the writings of Chuang Tzu, as we saw above, there are echoes of the sometimes naive materialist interpretation of the Tao, which was first characteristic of the ancient philosophical Taoism.
Chuang Tzu was like Mencius implacable opponent of materialist doctrine Yang Zhu. Rejecting the perception of the external world and the possibility of an objective relationship to reality, Chuang Tzu Taoism gave idealistic and mystical interpretation. He defined as the absolute unity of the Tao, reconciling the contradictions of the world, and developed the idea of the identity of life and death in a single, absolute Tao. Life seemed Zhuangzi illusion and death treated them as a return to the Tao - the true existence of an immortal soul. The way of knowledge conceived Chuang Tzu as a distraction from reality, which made it, in his opinion, the acceptability of Tao. The criticism of the subjective idealism of Chuang Tzu and his followers were supporters idealistic flow moistov - followers of the philosopher Mo Di, the teaching I received in IV-III centuries. BC. e. significant distribution. Coins paid great attention to the problem of knowledge. They believed that the source of our knowledge about the world are the senses. Despite the presence of elements in the teaching moistov materialistic thinking, in general, their worldview was of religious and idealistic character. Coin demand observance of religious precepts and the cult of the ancestors. At the heart of their philosophy lay religious idea of "heaven" as a supreme deity, and the recognition of the will and the supreme determining principle. At the same time coins were also preached against Confucians fatality, arguing that the fate of each person depends on himself.
In the fight with idealistic tendencies in philosophy stronger materialistic doctrine, the emergence and development has been closely connected with the progress of scientific knowledge. In turn, the development of materialistic view of nature move forward the development of science.
Development of materialistic ideas in ancient China V-III centuries. BC. e., in the period of acute social conflict, stood in direct connection with the struggle of the progressive and progressive social groups against the old, tribal in origin, the aristocracy, among which are usually dominated by idealistic outlook. Materialist philosopher representatives direction fatszya whose teachings received in the III. BC. e. extremely widespread. The ideology of this major exercise was Han Fei, expose religious mysticism and claimed that the Tao - a natural way of nature.
Literature
Warring States period was marked by a major shift in the field of literary creation. Blossomed reached poetry. At this time in the south of China, in the kingdom of Chu, was the development of a literary genre of poetry, which is closely associated with folk art - "Chu particles" ("Chuskie stanza"). The most important representative of this genre was a great poet Qu Yuan (340-278), whose work has had a great impact on the further development of Chinese poetry. If all extant earlier poetry, and above all "Shi Jing" ("Book of Songs"), is a monument of folk songs and ritual poetry, the works of Qu Yuan demonstrate an accomplished by the time the transition from oral song and poetry to literary poetry, having individual author.
Qu Yuan was born in the kingdom of Chu, and was descended from a noble aristocratic family. He lived in a stressful time when the kingdom of Qin fierce struggle for the unification of ancient China under its hegemony and its expansionist policies directly threatened the independence Chuskogo kingdom. Occupying high positions in the court of the ruler chuskogo, Qu Yuan insisted on strong resistance war plans of the kingdom of Qin, and demanded an alliance against Qin between Chu and the five other major ancient Chinese kingdoms. However, in an environment of bribery and political intrigue bold action Qu Yuan aroused strong dissatisfaction with court officials. Qu Yuan fell in disgrace, was removed from office and banished from the capital. He was very upset by the expulsion. Dying product Qu Yuan "A poem of grief and anger" conveys the tragedy of the great poet. Tradition says that when the old poet learned of complete defeat, which suffered chuskie troops and surrender chuskoy capital, he being unable to overcome the shame of their country plunged into a deep pool.
Poet conflict with the environment has found a bright reflection in his works, such as "Nine tunes", "Call of the soul", "the questioner sky", "I'm sorry for the past days," etc. A characteristic feature of poetry Qu Yuan is the link to his poems contemporary reality. Many works of Qu Yuan are revealing and satirical in nature, setting the poet, with his passion denounces slander, hypocrisy, and the intrigues of the court officials. Permeate the work Qu Yuan warm sympathy for the common people:
I am distressed that the people are suffering so much, serious me to breathe, hiding her tears. ("Poem of sorrow and anger)
Qu Yuan's poetry differs concise, yet rich in colorful language. In his works the poet constantly refers to people living in the myths and legends. His poetry is striking exceptional wealth of images, an extraordinary poetic imagination soaring.
Qu Yuan is considered the founder of the literary poetry of antiquity and is rightly called the first great poet of China. Qu Yuan Poems are unsurpassed masterpieces, and his name in China enjoys popular love.
Time Chzhango noted and certain development fiction.
Prose literature of this period consists mainly of myths, legends and stories associated with folk motifs. They are not separate works, and included in the work of Chuang Tzu, Mencius, Xun Zi, Han Fei and others philosophical and political treatises of the time.
Galexy y s5360 for sale in 7500/
Having good condition .It includes charger and
hand free also...Interested people can contact
There is evidence that games resembling football existed since ancient times. It is believed that they originated in Persia, where once there was polo. The ancient Greeks also had a game resembling ice hockey, which has even been included in the Olympic program. It was called "freyninda" In Athens, in relief of the famous walls of Themistocles, which is over 2,400 years depict young people who play it, much like a modern hockey.
But traditionally considered the birthplace of hockey in Montreal (although more recent studies suggest the primacy of Kingston, Ontario or Windsor, Nova Scotia). However, even in some of the XVI century Dutch paintings depicted a lot of people playing on a frozen canal in like a hockey game. But, despite this, the birthplace of modern hockey is still Canada.
1763
Britain recovered from France to Canada, the soldiers brought to this earth hockey. As the Canadian winter is harsh and long, then this place is always welcome winter sports. Attaching a cheese cutter to his boots in English and French-speaking Canadians have played this game on the frozen rivers, lakes and other water bodies. In Nova Scotia and Virginia, there are ancient paintings, which depict people playing hockey.
1875
March 3 at the rink in Montreal "Victoria" was held the first hockey game, details of which was recorded in the Montreal newspaper «Montreal Gazette». Each team consisted of nine. Wooden played hockey, and protective gear borrowed from baseball. First put on ice hockey goal.
1877
Several students at McGill University have invented the first seven hockey rules.
1879
Made rubber washer.
1885
In Montreal was founded Amateur Hockey Association.
1886
Rules of the game of hockey have been improved, ordered and printed. According to them, the number of field players reduced from nine to seven, on the ice are a goalkeeper, defenders of the front and rear, center and two forwards, and in front of the entire width of the field acting Rover (born rover - Rogue) - the strongest hockey player, the best throw-washer . The whole match, teams in one part, and by the end of the game athletes literally crawled across the ice from fatigue, as was permitted only to replace the player who is injured (and that in the last period, and only with the consent of the competitors). That same year, the first international meeting between the Canadian and British teams.
1890
In the province of Ontario passed the championship for four teams. Soon there were the ice rink with natural ice. That it did not melt in the walls and roofs cut through the narrow slits for access of cold air. The first artificial ice rink built in Montreal in 1899.
1893
The game of hockey has become so popular that the Governor-General of Canada, Lord Frederick Arthur Stanley bought for 10 guineas a cup, like the inverted pyramid of silver rings - to present champion. Thus was the legendary trophy - the Stanley Cup (first amateur fight for it, and since 1910 - and professionals later in 1927 Stanley Cup challenge team in the National Hockey League).
1900
At the gate there was a grid. With this new product to stop arguing about whether or not a goal is scored. Metal whistle, from cold to stick to his lips, replaced the bell, and soon a plastic whistle. Then enter the throw washers (before the judge hands move up the stick to the puck lying on the ice, and giving a whistle, moved off to the side, not to get slashing).
1904
The first professional hockey team was established in Canada. In the same year, players have moved to the new system the game - "six by six." Was equipped with a standard platform dimensions - 56 × 26 m, which has since changed little. After four seasons there was a complete separation of professional and amateur.
1908
At the beginning of XX century Canadian hockey interested Europeans. Congress in Paris in 1908, he founded the International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF), combining the original four countries - Belgium, France, the UK and Switzerland. For "amateurs" established Allan Cup, his owners later represented Canada at the World Championships.
1910
To increase the speed of the game and entertainment authorize the replacement athletes. In the same year there was a National Hockey Association
1911
IIHF formally approved the Canadian rules of the game of hockey,
1917
Came the famous National Hockey League (NHL).
1920
The first championship of the world. In the same year, the first meeting in the official tournament - the Olympics - between the teams of the Old and New Worlds. Canadians renewed their glory strongest hockey nation in the world. Canadians won the Olympic tournament (both were considered World Cup) in 1924 and 1928.
1929
Goalie Clint Benedict of the "Montreal Merunz" first put on the mask.
1934
Legitimized the free throw - bullet.
1936
Britain won the title of Olympic champion taking it from the Canadians, who owned it for 16 years.
1938
In Chicago, built the first palace of sports and has capacity for 15 thousand seats.
1945
Outside the gates installed colored lights for a more accurate accounting of goals ("red" is a goal, "green" - a goal is not fixed). At the same time introduced a triple refereeing: the Chief Justice and two assistants (linesman). A year later was institutionalized judicial system of gestures for specific violations.
The term - "hockey" derived from the English «hockey», or from the Old French «hoquet», meaning "shepherd's staff with a hook."
Hockey - a sports team game with sticks and puck (or ball), the content and the purpose of which - using individual maintenance and transfer of the ball partner, beat him the greatest number of times in the opponent's goal.
Even before the advent of hockey in the 16th century, the Netherlands there playing with a ball and sticks on the ice. Then these games have appeared in England and Scandinavia, where they subsequently transformed into hockey on the ice in the 19th century.
modern ice hockey as a sport game originated in Canada. This is the country, the climate and the nature of which (the numerous ponds, freezing in winter, and long winters) to create favorable conditions for the spread of the game. First, did not play hockey, and a heavy ball and the number of teams was 50 or more players on each side. in 1870. Ice hockey in Canada is a mandatory game for all sports events. The first ice hockey rules were formulated by students McGill University in Montreal. Classic hockey goal at the time was not yet been invented, their role was played by two racks that are celebrated space in which to get the puck when you hit the goal. In 1879, the Canadian UV. Robertson formulated the rules of hockey, and then was offered to play the rubber washer. In 1885, Montreal was founded Amateur Hockey Association. The first official rules of ice hockey were published in 1886godu, as preserved to the present day. They were amended by the number of teams: the number of players in the field was reduced from nine to seven, the conditions have changed to find the number of players in the game on the field: on the ice can be a goalkeeper, defenders of the front and rear, center and two wingers, and the area in front gate was the scene for the action of a strong hockey player - the rover. team, which entered the field of play, it was forbidden for any reason, change the players, so she spent the entire game in a single composition. Exceptions were made for replacement players for injured and always agrees rivals. The author of a new code of rules was Canadian R. Smith. In 1886, the first international meeting between the Canadian and British teams. in 1899 in Montreal, was built the world's first domed stadium to play football with an artificial ice surface for up to an unprecedented number of visitors - 10 000. In the same year founded the Canadian Amateur Hockey League. first professional team on the game of hockey has been organized in the country where hockey was born - in Canada in 1904. In four games this season, the team was the final division for professionals and amateurs. In the late 19th century, Canadian hockey has come to Europe. In 1914, the professional ice hockey clubs united in the National Hockey League (NHL). And in 1908 the United Kingdom, Bohemia, Switzerland, France and Belgium have established the International Ice Hockey Federation (Lih, after 1979 - IIHF). rules of the game are constantly changing: for example, in 1900, was invented grid for the gate, which allows to define precisely - whether scored a goal against the team. Were later installed size hockey rinks, installed the game (three periods of 20 minutes), reduced the number of players on the field up to 6 people, have been possible replacement players not only for health reasons. Also, his innovations have given us brothers Patrick - they have introduced a number assignment to each player, a new scoring system, a platform was lined on certain areas. In 1929, goalie Clint Benedict first put on the mask, and in 1945 the gates installed colored lights for a more accurate estimate of goals ("red" - the goal is "green" - a goal is not fixed). In recent years, began to appear in the women's hockey team, which in 1998 were included in the Olympic program.
April 8, 2012 Pakistani President Asif Ali Zardari arrived in India , where the first in seven years, the head of Pakistan's negotiations with the Indian leadership. The meeting focused on strengthening economic ties between the two countries, as well as trade, education and culture.
For 200 years, India was a British colony called British India. The apparent collapse of the British Empire came after the Second World War. In 1947, Britain was forced to grant independence to its biggest colonial possessions in India.
When the imminent departure of the colonial administration of the then united British India became evident, were confronted with the question of the future coexistence of the adherents of the two major religions of India, Hinduism and Islam.
Independence plan, drawn up under the direction of the last king of India Vice Lord Louis Maunbettena, provided for the establishment of two states dominions British crown of the Indian Union and Pakistan (after a few years, both the Dominion of India in 1950 and Pakistan in 1956, refused this status). Territories inhabited mainly by Muslims on the plan retreated to Pakistan.
Occurred as part of the two provinces of Bengal and Punjab. The population of East Bengal and West Punjab made a choice in favor of Pakistan, and the people of West Bengal and East Punjab in favor of accession into the Indian Union.
Indian Independence Act passed by the British Parliament, came into force on 15 August 1947.
Immediately after independence, there have been unprecedented clashes between Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs. There was mass migration of Muslims to Pakistan and Hindus in India.
Most pressing was the issue of territorial jurisdiction of Jammu and Kashmir, the Maharaja which was slow in the definition. By the day of the official declaration of the independence of India Maharaja principality has not decided on as to which the State must accede Kashmir. The parties continued to negotiate, but a peaceful solution could not be reached . In the night from 21 to 22 October 1947 on the territory of the Principality forces invaded the Pashtun tribes of the north-western province of Pakistan, and then the so-called "Pakistani volunteers," and on October 24 at the territory they occupied was announced the establishment of the interim government, "Azad Kashmir" ( "Free Kashmir").
As a result, the Maharaja signed a document on the inclusion of the Principality of India. In Kashmir, the aircraft were delivered to the Indian troops, while from Pakistan arrived additional armed units.
India blamed the Pakistani side of aggression and referred the Kashmir debate in the UN Security Council. The UN decided to establish as a demarcation boundary actual cease-fire line in its January 1, 1949.
As a result, about a third of the principality came under the control of the administration, "Azad Kashmir" and the rest of the territory, including the Kashmir valley with India. November 17, 1956 by the Constituent Assembly of Kashmir Constitution was adopted, according to which the state of Jammu and Kashmir was declared an integral part of India. However, Pakistan has continued to insist that the status of Jammu and Kashmir was established after the referendum on the terms of which the two countries have been unable to agree.
Kashmir was dissected between the two states without the recognition of the official boundaries of the area.
In April 1965 a second war broke out between Pakistan and India. Formally, the conflict started because of the uncertainty of the boundary line on the southern part of the joint border - desolate and deserted Kachskogo Rann. But soon the fighting between them unfolded across the ceasefire line and ended with only 23 September 1965. From 4 to January 10, 1966 in Tashkent, the Prime Minister of India and the President of Pakistan signed the Tashkent Declaration, according to which the parties agreed to withdraw the troops to pre-conflict positions.
In March 1971, India and Pakistan broke the third, the biggest war, which resulted from Pakistan broke away and formed the eastern part of the state of Bangladesh. In the summer of 1972 in Simla in India, the two leaders signed an agreement under which the parties undertook to "respect the line of control resulting from the cease-fire December 17, 1971." Cease-fire line has been refined and in December 1972, was renamed the Line of Control. However, beyond the precise demarcation remained Saltoro Ridge and Siachen glacier, which subsequently led to another round of conflict between Pakistan and India in 1984.
From the mid 1980s to the end of 1998 Indo Pakistan relations remained strained. In early 1999, among them come some relaxation. There was an active exchange of visits, held several meetings at the highest level. Culminated in a bus trip of the Prime Minister of India Atal Bihari. Vajpayee to Lahore in Pakistan in February 1999, where the parties have signed the Lahore Declaration. However, in a military coup in Pakistan that progress in bilateral relations was nullified.
February 2, 2001 , Pakistani President Pervez Musharraf announced his intention to come to the table. 14 July 16, 2001 in the Indian city of Agra, a meeting of the two presidents, which ended unsuccessfully. The peace process was derailed by a series of terrorist attacks.
In 2004 , after nearly 60 years of conflict, Islamabad and New Delhi have begun wide talks on normalizing relations. However, after a major terrorist attack in the Indian metropolis of Mumbai in November 2008 between the two countries began a fresh chill. Then a group of terrorists, who came to the investigation, from Pakistan, shooting people in the streets , in cafes, at the station, and then sat down at five-star hotels, and for two days resisted the Special Forces. The attack caused the freezing of negotiations on the normalization of relations between New Delhi and Islamabad, which previously were very active.
Now in Kashmir are no official boundaries, armies of the two states share the line of control.
After the terrorist attack in Mumbai in Jammu and Kashmir remained tense situation, there are periodic attacks, followed by the taking and killing of hostages, as well as armed clashes throughout the Indo Pakistan border.
February 25, 2010 in New Delhi, met the Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs of Pakistan Salman Bashir to Indian counterpart Nirupama Rao, marked the beginning of the resumption of official contacts between the two countries, which were interrupted after the attacks in November 2008. The main topic of the meeting was the issue of combating terrorism.
March 31, 2011 in the Indian city of Mohali leaders Manmohan Singh and Pakistan's Yousuf Raza Gilani met on the cricket match between the national teams of India and Pakistan. During the informal meeting of the party held an extensive discussion of all the issues and again agreed to make every effort to overcome the difficulties in relations between the two countries.
July 13, 2011 in Mumbai, there were three explosions , which killed 20 people and injured more than 100. Among the possible involvement of militant versions considered the group "Indian Mujahideen", which have close ties to the extremist group "Lashkar-e Taiba," based in Pakistan.
November 10, 2011 in the Maldives during the summit of the SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation), the Prime Ministers of India and Pakistan declared their readiness to open a "new page" in bilateral relations after the meeting. Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh and Pakistani Prime Minister Yousuf Raza Gilani held a half-hour conversation in the presence of several members of the delegations of their respective countries, as well as a talk "face to face."
The parties stated that New Delhi and Islamabad are ready to develop the wide dialogue and hoped that the next round of bilateral talks would be more productive and constructive than the previous.
Subscribe to:
Comments (Atom)
